Waves and Wave Phenomena

Identify and explain diffraction, polarisation, specular reflection, or diffuse reflection in an observed situation, using an appropriate diagram where required.

Order the electromagnetic spectrum by wavelength or frequency and calculate electromagnetic wavelength or frequency using c = fλ.

Apply the principle of superposition to determine overlapping-pulse displacement and explain beats between nearby frequencies.

Explain how natural frequency, forced vibration, and resonance account for amplitude growth in a driven oscillator.

Construct fundamental and harmonic standing-wave patterns for fixed strings and open or closed air columns, labelling nodes and antinodes.

Calculate fundamental and harmonic frequencies for fixed strings and open or closed pipes, including the odd-harmonic restriction of a closed pipe.

Predict and calculate changes in wave speed and wavelength at a boundary while explaining why frequency remains constant, using n = c/v where appropriate.

Use Snell’s law to calculate refracted or critical angles and determine whether total internal reflection occurs.