Distinguish static typing from dynamic typing, referencing their historical origins in the Fortran/ALGOL vs. Lisp traditions.

Contrast compile-time type checking (e.g., ML, Haskell) with run-time type checking (e.g., Lisp, Python).

Describe type safety and its importance, using examples from the ML family versus C's weaker guarantees.

Explain the Hindley-Milner type inference algorithm at a conceptual level, with reference to its origins in ML.

Compare strong typing (Python, Haskell) with weak typing (C, JavaScript) using concrete examples of their design philosophies.

Analyze trade-offs between typing disciplines by comparing influential languages (e.g., C's performance vs. ML's safety).