Aristotle's Function Argument for Eudaimonia

Introduction

Welcome to your next lesson on Aristotle. In our previous session, we reached the pinnacle of Aristotle's metaphysics with the concept of the Unmoved Mover—a being of pure actuality that causes motion as an object of desire and whose sole activity is perfect self-contemplation. We noted that this vision of a perfect, contemplative life would serve as an ideal for human existence.

Now, we shift from the divine cosmos to the human world, from metaphysics to ethics. This lesson begins our exploration of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, one of the most influential works in the history of moral philosophy. Our goal is to analyze his foundational argument for what constitutes a good human life. You will learn how Aristotle defines the ultimate goal for humans—which he calls eudaimonia—by investigating the unique function of a human being. This is famously known as the function argument.

The Search for the Chief Good

Aristotle begins his ethical inquiry with a simple but profound observation: every human action and pursuit aims at some good. We do things because we think they will lead to something good. This raises a crucial question: is there one ultimate good, a "chief good," for the sake of which we do everything else?

Think about your daily activities. You might work on a project (an instrumental good) to get a promotion (another instrumental good), to earn more money (another good), to provide for your family and live comfortably (yet another good). Aristotle argues that this chain of instrumental goods cannot go on forever. If it did, our desires would be "empty and vain." There must be a final end, something we desire purely for its own sake.

To get a clear grasp of this distinction between instrumental and final ends, let's watch a short video that illustrates the idea with concrete examples.

Now that you have the concept in mind, let's see how Aristotle formulates this argument in his own words.

What is Happiness (Eudaimonia)?

Aristotle states that there is widespread agreement on the name of this chief good: eudaimonia (εὐδαιμονία). This Greek word is often translated as "happiness," but "flourishing" or "living well" might better capture its meaning. It's not just a fleeting feeling of pleasure, but a state of being that reflects a successful and fulfilling life.

While everyone agrees that they want eudaimonia, they disagree profoundly about what it consists of. Is it a life of pleasure? A life of public honor and reputation? Or a life of wealth? Aristotle considers and dismisses these common views.

Aristotle argues these popular notions of happiness are flawed:

• Pleasure: A life devoted to pleasure is slavish and more suitable for animals.
• Honor: This is too superficial, as it depends on those who give it rather than the one who receives it. True good should be "one's own and not easily taken away."
• Wealth: This is clearly an instrumental good. We want money for what it can buy, not for its own sake.

Since common opinion is insufficient, Aristotle proposes a more rigorous way to define eudaimonia.

The Function Argument (Ergon)

To give a clearer account of happiness, Aristotle suggests we must first determine the function (ergon) of a human being. His reasoning is analogical: we know what makes a good flute-player (they play the flute well) or a good sculptor (they sculpt well) by looking at their respective functions. The good for anything lies in performing its specific function excellently. So, if we can identify the unique function of a human being, we can identify what it means to be a good human being.

What, then, is our unique function? Aristotle proceeds by a process of elimination.

1. Is it life (nutrition and growth)? No, because plants share this function.
2. Is it perception (a life of sensation)? No, because other animals also share this.
3. What remains is an active life of the element that has a rational principle. This capacity for reason, and for guiding our actions by reason, is what is peculiar to human beings.

To explore this crucial step in more detail, let's watch another video explanation.

Now, with this foundation, you are ready to tackle the primary text where Aristotle masterfully brings all these pieces together.

Analyzing the Argument

You have now read Aristotle's conclusion: human good (eudaimonia) is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue (aretē), over the course of a complete life.

Let's break this down:

• Activity of the soul: Happiness is not a passive state; it's about doing things. It's an active life, guided by our most defining capacity—the soul's rational element.
• In accordance with virtue: To perform a function well is to perform it in accordance with the relevant excellence or "virtue" (aretē). A good life is one in which we use our reason excellently.
• In a complete life: Flourishing isn't something achieved in a single moment. As Aristotle famously says, "one swallow does not make a summer." It requires consistency over a lifetime.

To fulfill this lesson's goal of analyzing the argument, we will now examine it in a more structured format and consider some critical questions. The following resource is particularly useful for this, as it reconstructs the argument in a clear premise-conclusion form that facilitates analysis.

Considering the questions from the resource:

• Does everything have a function? Can a human being be said to have a single function in the same way a knife does?
• Is rationality truly what is unique to humans? What about the complex cognitive abilities of other animals?
• Where do the standards for "good functioning" or "virtue" come from?

These are not easy questions, and they form the basis of much of the subsequent debate in ethics. For Aristotle, however, the argument provides a rational foundation for ethics. It moves the discussion of the good life from a matter of subjective opinion to an objective inquiry into human nature.

Conclusion

In this lesson, we have transitioned from Aristotle's metaphysics to his ethics and analyzed the cornerstone of his moral philosophy: the function argument.

Here are the key takeaways:

• The Chief Good: The ultimate goal of all human action is eudaimonia (flourishing), an end desired for its own sake.
• The Human Function: To define eudaimonia, Aristotle investigates the unique function (ergon) of a human being, which he identifies as the exercise of reason.
• The Definition of Happiness: Based on the principle that the good for any being lies in performing its function well, Aristotle defines eudaimonia as "an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, in a complete life."

This definition is the foundation upon which Aristotle builds his entire ethical system. Having established that the good life is a life of virtuous activity, the next logical question is: what exactly is virtue?

In our next lesson, we will delve into the nature of virtue itself. We will explore Aristotle's famous doctrine of the mean and distinguish between the two kinds of virtue that correspond to the rational soul: moral virtues (like courage and temperance) and intellectual virtues (like practical and theoretical wisdom).